A comprehensive guide ranking every abyss gear in Crimson Desert by attack type, based on controlled testing with War Spike Spears against Wolf Tracker enemies. Includes damage numbers, tier ratings, resource cost analysis, and top recommendations.
Abyss Gears are special modifiers that can be socketed into weapons and armor to add elemental effects and powerful follow-up attacks. Every attack type in the game (turning slash, sprinting attack, heavy attack, combo strike, finisher, etc.) can be augmented with specific abyss gears that trigger additional effects when that attack lands. Choosing the right combination of abyss gears is central to optimizing any builds in Crimson Desert, but stacking too many brings diminishing returns due to increased resource costs.
This guide provides a comprehensive ranking of every abyss gear in the game, organized by attack type. Each gear was tested under controlled conditions to produce accurate, comparable results. For more background on the abyss system itself, including how to acquire and socket gears, see the Best Abyss Gears Guide and Abyss Farming articles.
Testing Methodology
All abyss gears in this guide were tested under identical conditions to ensure fair, repeatable comparisons:
Weapon: War Spike Spears (13 Attack, no refinement applied, fully maxed skill tree).
Target enemies: Wolf Trackers faction enemies, which provide a consistent health pool for measuring damage output.
Measurement tool: A Health Detection Device was used to monitor precise enemy health bar changes after each attack.
Damage values: All percentage values (e.g., "~75% HP") refer to the fraction of a Wolf Tracker's total health removed by a single use of the abyss gear effect.
Because the test weapon had no Gear Refinement applied, the raw numbers represent baseline performance. Players with refined weapons will see proportionally higher damage. The relative rankings between gears remain the same regardless of refinement level.
One of the most important things to understand before slotting abyss gears is that they are not a free upgrade. Adding abyss gears to any attack increases that attack's resource cost. Turning Slash uses extra Spirit for each abyss gear stacked on the weapon. Heavy attacks burn more Stamina with each additional abyss gear equipped. This means there is a real trade-off between raw power and sustainability.
In practice, most players find that 2 to 3 offensive abyss gears per weapon provides the best balance between damage output and resource consumption. Stacking four or more offensive gears on a single weapon often leads to running out of Spirit or Stamina mid-fight, which can leave you unable to dodge or continue attacking. Passive modifiers and utility gears do not increase resource costs, so those are always safe to slot.
Keep this trade-off in mind when reading the rankings below. A gear rated "Excellent" for raw damage might not be worth equipping if you already have two other strong gears on the same weapon and cannot sustain the Spirit or Stamina drain.
Turning Slash (Right Bumper) is one of the most frequently used offensive abilities for spear and sword users. These abyss gears trigger an additional effect whenever you land a Turning Slash. Because Turning Slash already costs Spirit, stacking multiple abyss gears here can drain your Spirit bar very quickly.
Wave attack barely does damage; other gears handle AoE much better
Grace Soul Howling is the clear winner here. The soul entity it spawns effectively doubles your Turning Slash by delivering a second hit in a wide area. Frost Spike is a strong runner-up with consistent AoE damage. Ground Surge (also known as Firewave) deals respectable damage but falls short of the ice option. Wound of Darkness is not recommended for Turning Slash builds because its damage output is far too low compared to the alternatives.
Sprinting Light Attack Abyss Gears
Sprinting light attacks are your main gap-closing tool in combat. These abyss gears activate when you land an attack while sprinting, adding follow-up effects that can hit groups of enemies.
Summons 3 pillars that provide decent stagger but deal no meaningful damage
Hound's Claws is the only sprinting light attack gear worth using. It produces a large arcing wave that hits hard and staggers groups of enemies, making it excellent for clearing packs while on the move. Dark Crescent looks visually similar but deals almost no damage. Ancient Retribution provides some crowd control through its pillars but the damage is too low to justify a socket.
Sprinting Heavy Attack Abyss Gears
Sprinting heavy attacks (Right Click while sprinting) are slower but hit harder than their light counterparts. These gears add effects to the charged attack that plays when you hold the heavy attack button during a sprint.
Blood wave with good range and a long stun effect; only deals about 10% enemy HP in damage but the stun is useful for setup
None of the sprinting heavy attack gears are standout performers. Queen's Fangs is the best of the three thanks to its tick damage, but the sprinting heavy attack itself is a relatively slow move that leaves you vulnerable. Piercing Bloom has niche value as a setup tool since its long stun lets you follow up with a full combo. Crow's Storm is generally not worth the charge time.
Parry-based abyss gears trigger their effects when you successfully parry an enemy attack. Because parries are reactive and depend on timing, these gears reward skilled defensive play with powerful counterattacks.
Lightning God's Affliction is the best parry gear by a wide margin. The raw damage is high, the knockback is massive, and you get bonus damage when enemies collide with the environment. Howling of Chaos does not deal much damage on its own, but its extended stun duration and wide AoE make it an excellent utility pick for crowd control. Pairing both on the same weapon gives you a devastating parry that both damages and controls groups. Earth Rending Strike is outclassed in every way.
Finisher Abyss Gears
Finisher gears activate when you press light attack on a weakened or staggered enemy. These are execution-style moves that are meant to deal high burst damage to finish off targets.
Low damage, arrows can miss the target, and the effect is unreliable in general
Warden of Darkness is the only finisher gear worth equipping. At roughly 70% of a Wolf Tracker's health bar from a single activation, it hits nearly four times harder than Order from Above. Arrow Rain is particularly disappointing because the arrows can actually miss, making it the least reliable option in the category.
Combo Attack Abyss Gears
Combo attack gears trigger during your normal attack chains. They are among the most flexible gears because combo attacks are used constantly in regular combat. The "Moon Slash" family of gears (Full Moon, Crescent Moon, and Half Moon) has a special synergy when all three are equipped on the same weapon.
Hits extremely hard but requires very short range; situational due to positioning requirements
Moon Slash Elemental Synergy
Full Moon Slash, Crescent Moon Slash, and Half Moon Slash can be stacked together on the same weapon for an elemental crossover effect. When all three are equipped, combo attacks shoot ice, fire, and electric projectiles simultaneously. This combination is particularly effective for triggering multiple Elemental Effects at once, which can interact with rune bonuses and elemental weakness systems. Keep in mind that stacking all three will noticeably increase the Stamina cost of your combo attacks.
Heavy Attack Abyss Gears
Heavy attack gears trigger on your standard heavy attacks (not sprinting). These are core damage tools for many builds, and the Stamina cost increase from stacking multiple heavy attack gears can become a serious issue.
Crows home in on enemies, making it better at range; similar damage output to Tor's Orb
Shadow Claw is the clear best-in-class heavy attack gear, but it is locked behind a longer quest line so you will not have access to it early. Until then, both Tor's Orb and Crow's Pursuit are serviceable options. Tor's Orb is better for close-range pressure due to its speed, while Crow's Pursuit has an edge at range thanks to its homing projectiles.
Warning: Combining all three heavy attack gears on one weapon causes Stamina issues very quickly. The cost increase from stacking three gears makes it difficult to sustain a heavy attack rotation without running dry. Most players are better off picking one or two and saving the remaining sockets for utility or passive gears.
Dodge attack gears trigger when you attack immediately after a dodge roll. These are some of the strongest offensive gears in the game because dodge attacks are already a core part of aggressive play.
Launches tracking fireballs that home in on enemies; reliable damage that does not depend on precise aim
The dodge attack category contains some of the most powerful gears in the entire game. Spirit's Judgment and Judgment of the Soul both deal devastating damage. Spirit's Judgment is more consistent because its large AoE hits reliably, while Judgment of the Soul has higher potential damage but requires good positioning to get the most out of its linear charge. Ancient Wrath is the most forgiving option since its fireballs track enemies automatically, making it a great choice for players who prefer reliability over maximum burst.
Tiny damage output compared to Parting Gift; not worth the socket
Parting Gift is one of the most powerful individual gears in the entire game. Its trigger condition (dodging after taking a hit) is easy to meet in any combat encounter, and the three bombs it spawns deal enough damage to one-shot most regular enemies. Slashing Greeds deals so little damage in comparison that it is effectively a wasted socket.
Unarmed and Glove Abyss Gears
Unarmed Combat gears trigger during grapple attacks. One critical advantage of grapple-based gears is that grapple attacks bypass enemy shields entirely, which makes these gears especially valuable against shielded enemies that are difficult to damage with standard weapon attacks.
Has a knockdown chance which is nice for crowd control, but the low damage holds it back
Both Putrid Touch and Unarmed Efficite are top-tier picks. Putrid Touch is the safer choice because it delivers consistently high damage on every grapple, while Unarmed Efficite has the potential to nearly one-shot enemies but is slightly less reliable in its activation. Showstopper earns a solid third place thanks to its AoE burst and knockback. Since all grapple attacks bypass shields, these gears are some of the best tools for dealing with defensive enemies.
Elemental Abilities (Keyboard 1-4)
Elemental abilities are activated using the number keys (1 through 4) and consume ability charges. Unlike weapon-based abyss gears, these are standalone attacks that can be used independently of your weapon combos.
Deals roughly 10-15% enemy HP in damage; underwhelming compared to other elemental options
Shattering Frost stands out as the best elemental ability by a significant margin. Its combination of high damage, large AoE, freeze effect, and damage over time makes it useful in virtually every combat scenario. Volcanic Eruption is the second-best choice thanks to its reliable AoE. The lightning abilities are both disappointing, and the wind abilities serve niche purposes at best.
Top Recommendations by Category
The following table summarizes the single best abyss gear in each attack category based on the testing results above. These are the gears you should prioritize acquiring and socketing first.
Best overall ability; high damage, freeze, DoT, large AoE
Crit Rate vs Attack: The 53-Attack Breakpoint
Many players ask whether to socket Critical Rate gears or raw Attack gears on a primary weapon. Community math testing of how attack scaling and crit damage stack against per-weapon attack values has produced a useful rule of thumb. Below your weapon's Attack stat reading 53, straight Attack gears (Destruction tiers) deliver more average damage per swing. At or above an Attack stat of 53, Critical Rate gears (Insight tiers) start to outperform raw Attack because the larger flat bonus on each crit lands often enough to beat the marginal point of attack you would have gained instead.
This breakpoint is community-tested rather than confirmed by an in-game tooltip, so treat it as a strong default rather than a hard rule. Practical takeaways:
Early to mid game: Stick with Destruction (Attack) gears on the weapon you actually use. Most players spend a long time below 53 weapon attack while leveling Gear Refinement, and Attack gears compound better against the smaller base.
Endgame and post-refinement: Once a weapon's Attack value clears 53 with refinement and Blueprints stacked, switch one or two Destruction sockets over to Insight (Critical Rate). The crossover happens because crit's flat bonus is more valuable when applied to a larger base attack.
Per-weapon, not per-character: Because Attack and Critical Rate gears only apply to the specific weapon they are socketed on, evaluate the breakpoint per weapon. A 60-attack primary sword can run Insight while a 40-attack secondary bow keeps Destruction.
Greater Abyss Gear caveat: Greater versions of either modifier deliver roughly ten times the Tier I value but consume durability. They shift the breakpoint downward in practice because their per-socket impact is so large, but the durability cost makes them costly to leave equipped at all times.
Aegis vs Fortification: Damage Reduction or Defense?
The other long-running debate is whether to fill armor and shield sockets with Aegis (Damage Reduction) or Fortification (Defense). Damage Reduction is a flat percentage shaved off incoming damage. Defense scales against the attacker's stat in a more curve-like way that diminishes as your value climbs. The community summary based on math testing is straightforward, with one important exception:
Combat Scenario
Better Modifier
Why
General combat (around 98% of fights)
Aegis (Damage Reduction)
The flat percentage cut applies to every hit you take, scales evenly across enemy tiers, and avoids the diminishing returns that hit Defense at high values.
Against very high-damage single attacks, more raw Defense raises the absolute floor on each hit and is more likely to keep you above zero HP than the percentage shave from Damage Reduction.
Mixed PvE encounters with elite trash plus a boss
Aegis primary, Fortification on shield only
Use Damage Reduction for the bulk of trash and reserve a Shields socket for Fortification so the boss section of the fight gets the flat-Defense floor.
Dual-wield builds
Aegis on body armor; never Fortification on the shield
Defense from a shield only counts when the shield is slotted into the active weapon wheel loadout. Dual-wielders never have the shield equipped, so a Fortification gear socketed there is wasted. Damage Reduction on body Armor remains active no matter which weapon is out.
As with the 53-attack breakpoint, this guidance comes from community-run math testing rather than an in-game tooltip. The rule of thumb holds for the great majority of encounters, but always verify against your build by watching your effective HP loss in your Save System-protected practice runs before commiting to a full set of one or the other.
Where you socket a gear matters as much as which gear you socket. Crimson Desert's stat-activation rules are not entirely intuitive because gloves and boots are treated as weapons, and shields behave very differently for Defense, Damage Reduction, and Movement Speed. This summary mirrors the in-game stats panel behavior; always cross-check with your stats screen before locking in a build.
Modifier Family
Slot
When It's Active
Notes
Attack (Destruction) and Crit (Insight)
Weapon
Only when that specific weapon is drawn
If you put Destruction on your bow and fight with a sword, you gain nothing.
Gloves and boots are treated as weapons, so their Attack and Crit gears only fire on punches and kicks. Stats panel will display the bonus only after switching to unarmed in the weapon wheel.
This is the only weapon-style modifier that travels universally when socketed on gloves or boots. It even stacks with attack speed from your equipped weapon.
Only while the shield is in the active weapon-wheel slot
The shield does not need to be drawn for the Defense to apply: as long as it is slotted in (sword and shield, rapier and shield, etc.), the bonus stays. It drops the moment you swap the slot to dual wield.
Stricter than Fortification. Sheathing your sword and shield removes the Damage Reduction even though the shield is still slotted in. Drawing the shield restores it.
These are the most predictable: socket once, gain the effect at all times.
Dual-Wield Warning: Switching to dual wield removes the shield from the slot, which strips every shield-borne stat (Defense, Movement Speed, inherent Attack Speed) from your character sheet. If you intend to spend significant time in dual wield, do not invest sockets in shield-borne gears. Reserve those sockets for body armor where the bonuses persist regardless of weapon stance.
Imbue (Elemental) Gears
Imbue gears are the elemental-named entries (Imbue Fire, Imbue Lightning, Imbue Ice, Imbue Wind, and similar). They socket into Armor, not weapons, and trigger the moment you perform an Elemental Effects attack of the matching element. There are two ways to fire one off:
Elemental imbument skills: A separate skill in the tree lets you infuse your normal attacks with an element for a window of time. While that infusion is active, every regular attack also counts as an elemental attack and triggers the matching imbue gear.
Because the trigger is the elemental attack itself, imbue gears reward builds that already lean into one element. They are wasted on a build that uses raw physical damage and never touches an element button. If you are running a Critical Rate-focused weapon and zero elemental skills, skip imbue gears entirely and use the armor sockets for Aegis or Haste.
Ability Gear Stacking Caution
Ability gears (Turning Slash effects, parry effects, finishers, and the like) have an important quirk: you can stack multiple ability gears on the same weapon and have them all trigger on the same input. Three Turning Slash gears, for example, can all fire from a single Turning Slash press. Visually striking, but the catch is the resource cost stacks too.
Stacking three or more ability gears on one weapon turns each press into a major drain on Spirit or Stamina, and the additional damage rarely keeps pace with the cost. Most players settle on two ability gears per weapon as a balance point. Beyond that, you start to spend more time recovering resources between presses than you save by combining the effects, which lowers overall DPS even when each individual press hits harder.
Choose for fun, not just for meta. Many ability gears differ more in flavor than in raw output. If two options have similar damage but one fits your playstyle better, use the one that feels good. The DPS gap between most ability gears at the same tier is small enough that consistency in landing the trigger matters more than which gear is theoretically optimal.
Utility and Trap Gears
Beyond the offensive and defensive picks, several utility gears appear with effects that look attractive but are weaker than they read. The list below separates the genuinely useful early-game utility gears from the ones that tend to be socket traps.
Recommended Utility Gears
Gear
Effect
When It's Worth Slotting
Aptitude
Increases Skill Experience gain by 10/20/30% per tier
Excellent on early-game farming runs against hordes of enemies; speeds up Abyss Cell and Abyss Artifact accumulation. Strong throughout the run, not just early.
Resources (resource gathering)
Higher chance to gather extra resources from nodes
More universal than the per-resource specialty gears. A solid pick for any explorer or crafter playstyle.
Service
Increases Contribution gain
Pairs naturally with Dispatch Missions once you have unlocked dispatch workers via Seal of Devotion. Strong mid- to late-game when you are running missions regularly.
Regenerates a small amount of Spirit or Health per second
The regen rate is too slow to matter inside a fight. Useful only as filler between fights, and easily replaced once you have stronger gears available. Comfortable early; first to swap out later.
Fortune
+10/20/30% silver gain per tier
Only applies to silver picked up from drops, not silver earned by selling items. The selling exclusion makes it far weaker than it looks. Worth slotting in the early game; less attractive after the first few chapters.
Returns a small amount of Stamina, Health, or Spirit per hit landed
In current testing the per-hit return is roughly one point per light or heavy attack at level one. Killing an enemy already restores a sizable chunk of Spirit naturally, which can mask how little the siphon itself adds. Stamina regenerates quickly without the gear; Health is better solved with food; Spirit is better solved with focus consumables. Treat these as a trap unless a future patch buffs the per-hit values.
The most reliable way to acquire abyss gears in bulk is the disarm farm at Frost Pass, a snow-pass area populated by shielded mace enemies, archers, and spitter enemies. The full method (locations, blueprint synergy, exact loop) is documented in the Abyss Gear Farming Guide. This section captures the high-level loop for readers reaching it from this guide:
Equip a small shield and a regular sword. Kliff's starter sword and shield work. The disarm input does not register with two-handed weapons, dual wield, or larger shield types.
Save before you start. Use the Save System so you can restart cleanly if archers or spitters accidentally finish off the shielded enemies you wanted to disarm.
Kill the archers and the spitter enemies first. These ranged units will slowly chip away at the shielded enemies through splash damage. Clearing them removes the long-term failure mode of the farm.
Leave aggro to reset the area. Run far enough away from the encounter that the combat music drops. The shielded mace enemies respawn with their gear; the archers and spitters do not. Once cleared, they stay cleared for the duration of that visit cycle.
Disarm with a held block plus heavy attack. Hold block well before the enemy swings. The instant their attack lands on your guard, press heavy attack. A press of block instead of a hold becomes a parry, which does not strip the weapon. A light attack also does not work. Done correctly, the disarm is consistent.
Bring the looted shield and mace to a Witch. Visit any of the Witches of Pywel with the looted weapons. Extract the abyss gears and feed them through the special synthesis tab to roll for the better gears you actually want. The shield and the mace each draw from one of the two synthesis pools, so the pair lines up perfectly for the special synthesis input requirement.
Avoid the flying enemies near the watchtowers. Aerial enemies that spawn around the towers will chase you toward strongholds, and killing them too close to a stronghold reduces its capture percentage. If they aggro, lead them far away from the area before finishing them off.
Patch 1.05 Reblockade Note
Patch 1.05 added a reblockade system that respawns enemies at certain stronghold locations under specific war-status conditions. As of testing at the time of this guide, the Frost Pass farming spots do not appear to fall under that system. Other open-world locations on the war setting respawn quickly under reblockade rules without affecting Frost Pass enemy populations. Patch notes describe the system as limited to specific factions and areas, so this behavior may shift in later patches. Until that changes, the Frost Pass disarm method remains the canonical bulk-farm approach.
Save Scumming for Greater Abyss Gears
Special synthesis at the Witch is a percentage roll for a higher-tier or alternate-pool gear. Because the input cost is small relative to the value of the rare outputs, the standard farming workflow is to save before each synthesis batch and reload if the result is poor. This is the practical way to chase low-probability outputs like Greater Abyss Gears or hard-to-craft picks like Infinite Arrows I without grinding hundreds of cycles. The Save System allows manual saves on demand, which makes this loop fast in practice.
Quick Reference: Where Each Modifier Belongs
A condensed cheat sheet for build planning. Use this once you have decided on a primary playstyle to confirm you are putting each gear where it actually fires.
Goal
Best Slot Choice
Avoid
Single-weapon DPS focus
Destruction + Insight on the weapon; ability gears for that attack type stacked up to two
Stacking three or more ability gears on the same weapon (resource cost outpaces gain)
Aptitude + Resources on body armor; Haste on the same set if you can spare a slot
Siphon gears in any slot until they are buffed
General Tips
Prioritize refinement over stacking. Abyss gear damage scales with your weapon's Gear Refinement level. A refined weapon with two gears will often outperform an unrefined weapon with four gears because the base damage multiplier is higher and the resource cost is lower.
Mix offense and utility. Instead of filling every socket with damage gears, consider mixing in utility options like Howling of Chaos (crowd control) or Piercing Bloom (stun setup). The Spirit and Stamina savings let you sustain combat longer.
Test gears against your target content. These rankings are based on testing against Wolf Tracker enemies. Boss fights, elite enemies, and PvP encounters may shift the value of certain gears. Stun-heavy gears become more valuable against bosses that have vulnerability windows.
Do not sleep on grapple gears. Putrid Touch and Unarmed Efficite bypass shields entirely through grapple attacks. Against shielded enemies that block most weapon attacks, switching to Unarmed Combat with these gears equipped can be the fastest way to deal damage.
Parting Gift is a must-have. Because it sockets into boots rather than your weapon, Parting Gift does not compete with your weapon gears for slots. Its one-shot damage potential with an easy trigger condition makes it essentially free power.
Moon Slash stacking is a style choice. Equipping Full Moon, Crescent Moon, and Half Moon Slash together creates flashy multi-element projectiles, but the combined Stamina cost is steep. For raw efficiency, a single Wind Slash or Abyssal Rays will often do more per resource point spent.
Crafting and upgrading the full roster of abyss gear gems (including the boss-exclusive gems and the passive-bonus ones people build around) requires more recipes than a single vendor line provides. Sources split into two groups: witch vendors and exploration dispatches.
Basic Recipes: The Five Witches
The first and most basic tier of recipes is sold directly by the five witches of Pywel. One of these witches is guaranteed by the main story; the other four are unlocked through the Witches of Pywel side-quest chain. Clearing all five witches gives you the foundation recipes that every build needs before reaching out for the rarer drops.
Advanced Recipes: Six Exploration Dispatch Sites
Additional recipes (including boss-ability gems) come from six exploration dispatch sites, marked on the map with the diamond-and-circle icon. You must send an explorer-tagged companion to each site, and drops are RNG-based. The catch: you only have five explorer companions available, and there are six sites total, so you have to rotate which one you pause while running the others.
King's Shield Dig Site, unlocked through a Demeniss side-quest chain. Drops lean heavily toward boss ability gems.
Varheim Ruins, located in Palune (near Odealo). Unlock seems tied to Palune quest progression, though in some cases you can simply walk in. Mostly weapon ability gems.
Bordig Ruins, out in the Crimson Desert itself. Unlocked by completing the Tash Kelp outlaw-warlord chain (defeating each of the desert outlaw leaders). Rewards emphasise gathering-focused gems like Blessings of Beast, Earth, and Forest. Does not appear to be gated by main-story progress.
Time-Worn Ruins, north of Bordig, southwest of the desert fast travel marked under the 'R' in 'Desert' on the map. Usually unlocked just by visiting. Notable drops include Infinite Arrows and Legion Main, plus it is the renewable source for Abyss Artifacts.
Breachwood Ruins, not visited directly. Unlock it by researching the Breachwood Ruins Dispatch Plan at Perorin Village. Drops are again mostly boss ability gems.
Serpent Shrine, quest-locked behind the shrine's dragon encounter. Mix of main gear pieces and some boss abilities.
Because you can only staff five of the six sites at once, pick based on what your build still needs: if you are chasing boss abilities, pause Bordig; if you are gathering-focused, keep Bordig active and pause one of the boss-ability sites. A full gear set requires on the order of 72 Abyss Artifacts to max, so most players end up cycling all six sites over the course of the run.
Community Tier List Reference (Ranked Breakdown)
A Crimson Desert content creator published a complete tier list ranking every Abyss Gear out of 30 across damage, usability, and utility (10 points each). Score brackets: 25+ is S tier, 20 to 24 is A tier, 15 to 19 is B tier, 10 to 14 is C tier, 5 to 9 is D tier, and below 5 is F tier. The full per-category breakdown is published in the Best Abyss Gears Guide, and individual gear articles include the per-axis breakdown under their Community Tier List Rating sections.
Highest-rated gears that the community summary flags as must-have picks across all categories:
Notable lower-ranked gears that the community recommends avoiding include Storm Fang (F tier, 7/30), Arrow Rain (F tier, 7/30), Orbs of Lightning (D tier, 8/30), and Ancient Reckoning (D tier, 9/30). The lightning and wind element categories overall are flagged as the weakest of the four element families per this community testing.